Editing 101

Punctuate Proficiently

Apostrophes (')

The apostrophe has two main functions: to indicate the omission of letters or numerals and to form a possessive. It is occasionally, but rarely, used to make a plural.

The apostrophe has two main functions: to indicate the omission of letters or numerals and to form a possessive. It is occasionally, but rarely, used to make a plural.

Indicating omitted letters or numerals

Apostrophes can signal the omission of one or more letters in a word, or one or more digits in a number.

The most common use is in forming contractions of verbs (I’m, it’s, they’re). Common contractions sound friendlier and less formal than the spelled-out verb and are generally preferable as long as they don’t confuse the reader.

Two caveats:

Quotation marks (" ")

Use quotation marks for identifying direct quotations, defining words, referring to words and letters, expressing irony, setting off long modifiers, and setting off the titles of some works.

Use quotation marks for:

  • Identifying direct quotations
  • Defining words
  • Referring to words and letters
  • Expressing irony
  • Setting off long modifiers
  • Setting off the titles of some works

Identifying direct quotations

When quoting a person, a text, or another source directly, use these guidelines:

  • Use quotation marks to surround the exact words of a speaker or writer.

Examples
“There are very few people,” he said, “who understand the logic.”
The writer said that his works are “total fictions.”

Question marks (?)

Use a question mark for a direct question.

Use a question mark for a direct question.

Examples
Who wrote the book of love?
Would you like to try it?

Don’t use a question mark for indirect questions.

Examples
I wonder who wrote the book of love.
She didn’t answer him; he wondered why.

Many rhetorical questions (those asked for effect and not requiring any answer) do require a question mark. But use an exclamation point instead when the question is really an exclamation, and use a period when the question is really a suggestion or a polite request (one where a “no” answer is not anticipated).

Periods (.)

Use a period to end a declarative sentence, an imperative sentence, or an indirect question.

Use a period to end a declarative sentence, an imperative sentence, or an indirect question. A period sometimes ends a courtesy question (a politely phrased request) or a rhetorical question (one that is asked for effect and that does not require an answer). For more information about courtesy questions and rhetorical questions, see “Question Marks.”

Examples
I would like to stay. (Declarative sentence)
Let’s stay. (Mildly imperative sentence)
Get a plate and sit down. (Imperative sentence)
She asked if we would like to stay for dinner. (Indirect question)

Hyphens (-)

Use a hyphen (-) to form compounds of two or more words and to separate some prefixes and suffixes from root words.

Use a hyphen (-) to form compounds of two or more words and to separate some prefixes and suffixes from root words.

Forming compound modifiers

A compound modifier is two or more words that function as a unit. For compound modifiers that come before a noun, use hyphens to join the parts of the compound so that readers understand your intent. Consider the difference, for example, between red and green ties and red-and-green ties.

When faced with a compound modifier, follow these rules:

Exclamation points (!)

Follow these rules for using exclamation points.

Follow these rules for using exclamation points:

  • Use them sparingly for emphatic expression. When overused, the exclamation point loses its impact.

Example
Before
She couldn’t believe her eyes!
After
She couldn’t believe her eyes.

  • Use the exclamation point for interjections (“Dude!”) or commands (“Duck!”) or to express surprise or urgency (“The house is on fire!”).
  • If the exclamation point ends a quotation, don’t use a comma or a period after the exclamation point.

Ellipsis points (. . .)

Ellipsis points (three periods in a row) usually indicate the omission of one or more words in quoted matter. In print publications, ellipsis points are typically set with a space between each of the periods (. . .). But online, adding a space between each dot can lead to bad line breaks, with, for example, one dot at the end of one line and two dots at the beginning of the next.

Ellipsis points (three periods in a row) usually indicate the omission of one or more words in quoted matter. In print publications, ellipsis points are typically set with a space between each of the periods (. . .). But online, adding a space between each dot can lead to bad line breaks, with, for example, one dot at the end of one line and two dots at the beginning of the next. To create ellipses in Web copy, choose one of the following methods—just use it consistently:

Dashes (- and --)

Dashes generally come in two sizes: the en dash and the em dash.

Dashes generally come in two sizes: the en dash and the em dash.

En dash

An en dash (–) is longer than a hyphen but shorter than an em dash.

Use the en dash to:

Commas (,)

The comma serves two main purposes: First and most important, it separates elements, such as items in a series. Second, just as an apostrophe indicates missing letters, so a comma indicates a missing word or words.

The comma serves two main purposes: First and most important, it separates elements, such as items in a series.

Second, just as an apostrophe indicates missing letters, so a comma indicates a missing word or words: The bread was fresh; the salad, crisp; the terrine, divine.

Separating items in a series

“To my parents, Ayn Rand and God.”

That classic example—purportedly from a book’s actual dedication page—shows the confusion that can ensue when a comma is omitted before and. Including the comma before and (called a serial comma) clears up the ambiguity.

Follow these rules when writing a series of items:

Colons (:)

A versatile mark of punctuation, the colon is most often used to introduce.

A versatile mark of punctuation, the colon is most often used to introduce: